Climate Change Policies in the Global South: Case Studies from Laos, Uruguay, Kenya, and Cambodia
The Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) evaluates the climate action of 63 countries and the EU, together accounting for over 90% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this blog post, we broaden the lens to spotlight four countries not included in the CCPI—Laos, Uruguay, Kenya, and Cambodia—each with a compelling climate story worth telling.
Four countries on three continents, with a combined population of 86 million, are among those most affected by the climate crisis, though they scarcely contribute to it. Each faces unique challenges, and some have found innovative ways to address the crisis.
Uruguay, South America’s second-smallest nation, is one of the few countries to have recently submitted an updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). Kenya, the largest economy in East Africa deserves praise for sourcing large shares of its electricity from renewable energies. Laos, among the most vulnerable countries, has large hydropower dams. Meanwhile, neighbouring Cambodia is also highly vulnerable to floods and must address its high rate of deforestation.
The CCPI methodology targets countries that emit the major share of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, it has yet to include any of these four countries, as they contribute very little to global GHG emissions. The 63 countries, along with the European Union, assessed in the CCPI, account for 90% of such emissions, meaning they have the primary responsibility for reducing emissions.
Lower-emissions countries are outside the CCPI’s scope, but through this post, we will take a closer look at conditions and challenges in these four countries, focusing on the CCPI categories of GHG emissions, renewable energy, energy use, and climate policy.
Hydropower challenges in Laos
Laos is a Least Developed Country (LDC) highly vulnerable to climate change. The Southeast Asian nation only contributes marginally to global GHG emissions, with CO2 per capita of 2.5 tonnes. For comparison, Germany’s CO2 emissions per capita are 7.3 tonnes. Mountainous and landlocked Laos relies on road transport for trade and economic growth, making the transport sectors responsible for 40% of the emissions.
Almost all of Laos’ electricity is generated from hydropower, but electricity only makes up a quarter of the final energy consumption, as most of the country’s energy demand is met through direct fuel use.
While hydropower is a renewable energy source, it can have negative consequences. The large hydropower dams built on the Mekong River threaten the livelihoods of 66 million people who rely on the river, and risk to change the river’s biodiversity by altering its flow and blocking sediment. Two dams are already operating and several more will be built in the coming years. Much of the energy generated will be exported to other countries.
Next to environmental justice issues associated with hydropower, Laos faces the problem of seasonal power supply issues because of its heavy reliance on hydropower for electricity generation. Using more wind and solar to diversify the energy mix could help overcome these issues.
Laos’ NDC from 2021 set an unconditional emissions reduction target of 60% by 2030 vs a 2020 baseline scenario. Choosing such a recent year as the reference level can lead to weaker targets than, for example, using 1990, as many other countries do. One key climate mitigation policy aim for Laos is to increase forest cover from 40% to 70%. The target was initially set for 2020, but was later postponed to 2035.Forests serve as natural carbon sinks, landslide protection, and biodiversity hubs. While it is important to lower deforestation, policies must be implemented in a just manner, considering how they might affect local communities’ livelihoods.
Uruguay delivers NDC 3.0, but lacks ambition
Uruguay has a small territory and low levels of industrialisation. Its economy is based mainly on the use of natural resources, with agricultural-based products such as soybeans, beef, and cellulose as its main export goods. The agricultural sector accounts for most of the country’s emissions, but the overall emissions are comparatively marginal. In 2022, Uruguay’s CO2 emissions amounted to 7.19 million tonnes, while its GHG emissions, including the LULUCF emissions, amounted to 41.8 million tonnes. Still, just 0.08% of global GHG emissions. For comparison, Germany was responsible for 1.4%.
In February 2025, all signatories of the Paris Agreement were required to submit a new NDC 3.0, but only 13 had done so, with Uruguay as one of them. These updated NDCs are intended to lay out national decarbonisation and resilience plans up to 2035. Uruguay deserves credit for being a first mover, but its unconditional target of capping annual GHG emissions at 9.3 million tonnes is the same as in its previous NDC 2.0, which initially set the target for 2030.
Uruguay has several pieces of climate legislation in place, including a National Climate Change Response System that coordinates the actions of different government bodies, a National Climate Change Policy, and several National Adaptation Plans. The Climate Policy Database classifies Uruguay’s general policy coverage as good, but very poor for the different sectors.
In less than two decades, Uruguay achieved something remarkable: over 98% of its electricity is now generated from renewables. While in 2007, the country was still relying on fossil fuels for a third of its energy generation, it now generates its electricity from hydropower, wind, and biofuels. The sharp increase in oil prices in 2008 prompted this shift. Nevertheless, the government recently issued several licenses for companies to search for oil along Uruguay’s coastline, which could hamper the country’s energy transition.
Uruguay recently signed an innovative loan agreement with the World Bank, which offers reduced interest rates if the country meets more ambitious climate targets. It does this specifically by cutting methane emissions at a rate higher than what is outlined in its NDC.
Livestock farming increases methane emissions in Kenya
Kenya has small historical responsibility and is highly vulnerable to climate change. Extreme weather events such as flooding and droughts affect the country’s agriculture, infrastructure, and energy production.
While Kenya has yet to submit its NDC 3.0, its current NDC aims to reduce emissions by 32% below business-as-usual (BAU) by 2030 (including land use, land-use change, and forestry [LULUCF]), with 13% conditional on international financial support. Its National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy introduced energy efficiency targets in multiple sectors, including buildings, with the goal of reducing national energy intensity by 2.8% a year. Half of Kenya’s GHG emissions are from methane because of its extensive livestock farming. Methane, unlike CO2, is among so-called short-lived GHG emissions (~12 years’ lifetime in the atmosphere) but has 84 times the global warming potential of CO2 (over 20 years). At COP28, Kenya joined the Global Methane Pledge, which has 159 members and aims to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% by 2030 compared with 2020 levels.
Kenya is at the forefront of renewable energy in Africa, generating over 90% of its electricity from renewables. It is one of the few countries pursuing geothermal, which accounts for 54% of electricity, while hydropower accounts for another 24%. At the same time, biofuels and waste dominate its total energy supply, making up two-thirds of the total final consumption in 2023. Burning household trash and industrial waste causes lethal air pollution. Kenya would therefore benefit from moving away from bioenergy and improving its energy efficiency.
Cambodia’s struggle with deforestation
Cambodia, one of the poorest countries in East Asia, contributes under 0.1% of global GHG emissions. Most of its citizens live in rural areas and almost half engage in agriculture or fishing. Large dams being built on the Mekong River, such as in Laos, negatively affect these climate-sensitive income sources.
Cambodia largely relies on fossil fuels for its energy supply, with most of the total energy supply coming from oil (41% in 2022). Meanwhile, biofuels and waste make up 35% and coal 17%. Most of its renewable energy is sourced from hydropower and bioenergy. The country’s NDC 2.0 from 2020 outlines the aim of reducing emissions by 41.7% by 2030 compared with a BAU scenario, partly depending on international finance. Cambodia also has a Long-Term Strategy in place, aiming for carbon neutrality by 2050.
Cambodia has one of the world’s highest rates of deforestation, having lost around 64% of its tree cover since 2011. Illegal logging leads to a loss of biodiversity and violation of indigenous rights. In its first National Forest Programme, the government outlined a 60% target forest cover by 2029.
Low-level contributors struggling with climate consequences
All four countries are linked by the fact that they have contributed very little to the climate crisis, yet they have to grapple with its consequences.
While Laos, Uruguay, and Kenya have made substantial progress in sourcing electricity from renewables, the impact of large-scale infrastructure projects can negatively affect local livelihoods. This is particularly true for Laos and Cambodia, two countries that are building hydropower dams on the Mekong River. Although the countries are on the right track in some areas, the implementation of all national climate policies depends on institutional capacity, and on international climate finance.
Merle Clara Riebandt